Baptism in the Early Church
“As a man’s body was cleansed by the water, so his soul was bathed in the grace of Christ.”[1] These words from the Scottish theologian, William Barclay, have resonated with the souls of thousands of saints. The sacred act of baptism has been a source of much debate, hostility, misunderstanding, and division. Yet through all the clouds surrounding the subject, Christians are still enthralled by the imagery and act of baptism portrayed in the New Testament. When reading the New Testament, one cannot avoid the discussion of baptism. As J.A. Harding said, “The duty to be baptized confronts every man who reads the Bible.”[2] A doctrine that is so deeply grounded in Scripture and Christian theology demands careful study and proper interpretation. The scope of this paper is to do just that – to examine baptism in its New Testament context in order to sketch a proper understanding of its place in the early Christian message. This paper argues that the early Church proclaimed baptism as the decisive act through which an individual turned to God in repentance and confessed faith in Jesus, resulting in forgiveness of sins and incorporation into the Church. This thesis will be supported by a detailed examination of New Testament teaching and early Church fathers, followed by a defense addressing a common objection. The goal of this paper is to hold fast to the biblical practice set forth by Jesus Christ and His holy apostles as seen in the pages of the New Testament.
The Role of Baptism in the Gospel Proclamation
The scope of this section is not to define what baptism is, who it is for, or who can perform the ceremony. Shelves have been weighted down with volumes that speak to these matters. Instead, this section will seek to provide a clear understanding of the role of baptism in the proclamation of the early Church by looking at the New Testament and the early Church fathers. This section will be divided into four main parts, which align with the major thesis of this paper: baptism and repentance; baptism and faith profession; baptism and forgiveness of sins; and baptism and the Church.
Baptism and Repentance
Baptism and repentance were tied together before the Church was established. John’s baptism is described as “a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Mark 1:4).[3] Luke notes that the Pharisees “rejected God’s purpose for themselves” by refusing John’s baptism, thus rejecting the call to repentance (Luke 7:29–35). In Acts 2:37, after Peter’s sermon, the crowd asks, “Brethren, what shall we do?” Peter responds, “Repent, and each of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ…” (Acts 2:38). Through these instances, baptism and repentance are intimately tied to one another.
Paul also joins repentance and baptism in Romans 6:1-11. Here, Paul is responding to the claim that Christians may “continue in sin so that grace may increase” (Rom 6:1). He argues that in baptism one dies to sin, is buried with Christ, and rises to walk in newness of life (Rom 6:3-6). This imagery communicates the essence of repentance. J.I. Packer defines repentance as a change of mind and heart, as well as a commitment to a new life of denying self and living for Christ.[4] This definition fits perfectly with Paul’s teaching here. When Paul wanted to remind these Christians of their commitment to die to sin and live a new life, he pointed them to their baptism, where that commitment to repentance was made.
This connection between repentance and baptism was maintained through the second and third centuries. The Shepherd of Hermas reveals this connection, saying, “there is no other repentance than that which takes place when we descend into the water and receive the remission of our former sins.”[5] Hermas’ statement reinforces the view that the early Church saw repentance and baptism as one act. In later developments, the connection between repentance and baptism was seen in the form of a verbal renunciation of idolatry with the devil and his angels.[6] Hippolytus taught those being baptized to say, “I renounce you, Satan, and all your service and all your works” as they stood in the baptismal waters.[7] While that may seem extreme, it reveals the connection they saw between baptism and turning from a life of sin in repentance.
From the days of John the Baptist through the Church Fathers, death to a life of sin occurred in the waters of baptism. This demonstrates that baptism was preached in the early Church as the act in which a person turned to God in repentance. These were not separate acts, but one unified response to the gospel. Baptism is the declaration of a new life raised, and an old one crucified.
Baptism and Profession of Faith
According to G.R. Beasley-Murray, baptism and faith are inseparable in the New Testament.[8] This inseparability is seen as early as the Great Commission recorded by Mark. Jesus said, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation. He who has believed and been baptized shall be saved…” (Mark 16:15-16). Jesus tied faith and baptism directly to one another in response to the gospel.[9] There are numerous examples of this in the Acts narrative. In Acts 8:12-13, they believed Philip’s message and were baptized. In Acts 16:31-34, the Philippian jailer is told to “believe in the Lord Jesus,” and his household is baptized within the hour. Similarly, in Acts 18:8, the text reveals that the Corinthians “when they heard, were believing and being baptized.” Perhaps one of the most explicit biblical texts that unites baptism and a profession of faith is Acts 8:37. Here, Philip calls for a profession of faith in Jesus, and the man confesses his belief and is immediately baptized.[10] Another great text which proves this point is Acts 19:5. Here, the men of Corinth had been baptized into John’s baptism to wait for the coming Messiah (Acts 19:4). However, now that Christ had come, they needed to profess faith in Jesus and be baptized in His name (Acts 19:5). This faith profession was so central to baptism that Paul ordered them to be re-baptized upon their newfound faith in Jesus. Based on all this and more, Michael Green concludes that “baptism was administered on profession of repentance and faith in Jesus.”[11] Green affirms what is seen throughout the Acts narrative: baptism was the climax of faith itself.
Another connection between a profession of faith and baptism is found in Paul’s teaching to “confess with your mouth Jesus as Lord” and to “call on the name of the Lord” (Rom 10:9-13). While Paul does not explicitly mention baptism in this passage, the language he uses echoes baptismal language found elsewhere. For example, when Paul recounts his conversion, he quotes Ananias saying, “Get up and be baptized, and wash away your sins, calling on His name” (Acts 22:16, emphasis added). Similarly, in Acts 2, Peter links “calling on the name of the Lord” with the command to “repent and…be baptized” (Acts 2:38). These examples suggest that, for the apostles, “calling on the name of the Lord” referred to the whole response to the gospel, which necessarily includes baptism. When Paul uses phrases like “call on the name of the Lord” and “confess Jesus as Lord,” he is anticipating the moment of conversion in which a person professes faith in Christ and is baptized into Christ.[12]
This connection between a faith profession and baptism was carried into the early Church. Justin Martyr argued that once a person was “persuaded in the things taught and vowed to live accordingly” they would be led to the water for regeneration.[13] Tertullian went as far as to write a whole treatise against the belief that one could be saved by professing faith without baptism, in which he claimed that a faith profession must be tied to the necessity of baptism.[14] The example given in the Apostolic Tradition takes this even further than the New Testament. Hippolytus taught a triple-immersion with a formulaic faith profession in each person of the Trinity before each immersion.[15] This example is certainly expanded upon from the simpler example of the New Testament, but it demonstrates the great significance of the tie between baptism and a profession of faith.
In his extensive survey of the New Testament and other early Christian literature, Everett Ferguson concludes that a minimum requirement for those being baptized was a verbal confession of faith and repentance.[16] Beasley-Murray takes this further, saying, “baptism… [due to its public nature] becomes by its nature a confession of faith and allegiance embraced.”[17] As Beasley-Murray notes, baptism was inherently confessional. It was not just a requirement following belief, but the very form that belief took in the early Church. Scholars like Ferguson and Beasley-Murray have noticed that the New Testament pattern, which extends into the Church fathers, is that the early Church preached baptism as the decisive act in which a person confesses faith in Christ.
Baptism and the Forgiveness of Sins
The New Testament contains several attestations to baptism as the means by which sins are forgiven. Jesus, in the Great Commission, connected belief and baptism to salvation (Mark 16:16).[18] Peter, in his Pentecost sermon, urged his hearers to repent and be baptized “for the forgiveness of sins” (Acts 2:38). Ananias exhorted Saul to “get up and be baptized and wash away your sins” (Acts 22:16). Paul declared that believers had been freed from bondage to sin through baptism (Rom 6:6-7). In writing to the Corinthians, Paul reminded them they had been “washed, sanctified, and justified in the name of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 6:9-11). In Colossians, Paul likened baptism to a spiritual circumcision in which “the body of the flesh” is removed, thus bringing a person from death to life – an allusion to the forgiveness of sins (Col 2:11-13). He also wrote to Titus that salvation came “through the washing of regeneration and renewal by the Holy Spirit” (Titus 3:5).[19] Peter stated very plainly that “baptism now saves you – not the removal of dirt from the flesh, but an appeal to God for a good conscience” (1 Peter 3:21). These texts, among others, affirm the consistent and clear apostolic association between baptism and the forgiveness of sins.
The deep necessity of baptism is seen when considering the alternatives in these texts: without baptism, one is not saved (Mark 16:16), forgiven (Acts 2:38), cleansed from sin (Acts 22:16), set free from sin’s power (Rom 6:6–7), sanctified or justified (1 Cor 6:9–11), brought from death to life (Col 2:11–13), regenerated (Titus 3:5), or able to have a clean conscience (1 Peter 3:21). If these are the results of baptism plainly stated in the text, surely, they cannot be achieved without it. The prevailing image that emerges from the pages of the New Testament is one of baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
The early Church fathers picked up on this theme and seemed to all teach the same saving pattern found in baptism. Hermas writes, “They descend into the water dead and ascend alive.”[20] Similarly, The Epistle of Barnabas says, “We indeed descend into the water full of sins and defilement, but come up, bearing fruit in our heart, having the fear of God and trust in Jesus in our Spirit.”[21] Tertullian pointedly said, “Without baptism, salvation is attainable by none.”[22] These statements are intentionally bold, not to elevate baptism above faith or grace, but to emphasize that the Church understood baptism as the occasion where salvation is received. For Tertullian and others, this was not about earning grace but receiving it at God’s appointed time and place.
It can be concluded from the Biblical support and the early Church fathers that baptism is the decisive act in which a person turns to God in repentance and confesses faith in Jesus, resulting in the forgiveness of sins. It is in the water where God washes the guilt-ridden sinner clean from every stain which taints their soul (Acts 22:16), and thus they are raised up having been washed, sanctified, and justified in the name of the Lord Jesus (1 Cor 6:11).
Baptism and the Church
Beginning with Jesus’ great commission, baptism is how a person became a disciple of Jesus (Matt 28:19-20). As Ferguson notes, “Baptism is…accepting the position of disciple” and thus joins arms with other disciples.[23] In the Acts narrative, baptism is how a person is “added” to the body of believers (Acts 2:41). Based on these texts, there are several passages which assume new believers being added to the body through baptism in the rapid growth of the early Church (Acts 2:47; 4:4; 5:14; 6:1; 6:7).
Paul alludes to this teaching on baptism numerous times in his writing. He rebukes the Corinthians for their division over spiritual gifts and cites baptism as the very act that united them together into one body (1 Cor 12:13 In Galatians, Paul states that faith and baptism are how they became sons of God by clothing themselves with Christ, thereby being added to the family of Abraham. (Gal 3:26-27). Furthermore, Paul describes the unity of the Spirit by connecting “one body” with “one baptism” (Eph 4:3-6). Thomas Schreiner correctly concludes from many of these Pauline texts that “baptism… designates an initiation rite shared in common by all those belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ.”[24]
This view of baptism is maintained emphatically by the Church fathers. Some of the earliest references to baptism and the Church are in teachings about the Lord’s Supper. The Didache taught that “no one is to eat or drink of your eucharist except those who have been baptized into the name of the Lord.”[25] Justin Martyr taught similarly, saying, “no one is allowed to partake except the one who believes the things taught by us to be true, was washed in the bath for forgiveness of sins and regeneration, and who lives in the manner Christ taught.”[26] The early Church emphasized baptism in connection with the Lord’s Supper because they understood baptism to grant participation in the community of the Lord.[27] Hermas depicted a great image of this when he pictured a tower being built with each soul that was baptized – the tower being the Church.[28] This view of baptism granting incorporation into the Church was held even into the third century. Origen used the imagery of the Old Testament patriarchs finding marriage at the well to prefigure marriage to Christ in baptism. Thus, he says, “the Church is united to Christ in the bath of water.”[29]These testimonies collectively show the Church’s conviction that baptism was the gateway into the Christian community and a shared life in Christ.” They saw baptism not merely as a personal commitment, but as a communal one. As Green summarizes, baptism marked one’s entrance into a shared Christian life – a view consistent with the Didache, Justin Martyr, and the very words of the apostles.[30]
Defending the Salvific Role of Baptism
An opposing viewpoint argues against this thesis on the grounds that justification is by faith alone, apart from any human action; therefore, baptism cannot result in salvation. This perspective undermines the view of baptism presented in this paper in three ways. First, those who hold the opposing view claim that justification comes by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone.[31] Second, those who hold the opposing view claim that a salvific role of baptism makes it a work to earn salvation, likening it to Old Testament circumcision.[32] Third, those who hold the opposing view claim that justification occurs prior to, and independent of baptism.[33] In the following sections, each of these rebuttals will be responded to independently and will defend the thesis of this paper.
Justification by Faith Alone
Matthew Barrett boldly asserts that justification is by grace alone, through faith alone, and in Christ alone.[34]He continues by saying that this justification occurs “at the moment of faith.”[35] His logic flows as follows: if Christ’s righteousness is imputed to the believer, resulting in justification, then the believer is not justified by any meritorious works of his own accord, but by the righteousness of Christ. Thus, Barrett carefully says that, “faith is not the basis but the instrument through which we are justified.”[36] He explains this language of instrumental cause by saying, “it is by trusting in Christ, depending upon and receiving his atoning, substitutionary work on the cross, that a sinner is justified.”[37] Following these main ideas of justification by faith alone, he cites several scriptures in which Paul teaches vividly against a works-based salvation and in support of a faith-based salvation (Rom 4:3-5; Gal 2:16; 3:11; 5:4; Eph 2:8-9). Thus, he concludes, “According to Scripture, justification is not faith plus works, but by grace alone, through faith alone.”[38]
Barrett’s argument here is commendably precise. He is accurate in nearly every respect. In fact, there is only one small flaw in this line of reasoning: saving faith is never described as being alone. The New Testament repeatedly links saving faith with repentance (Acts 26:20), verbal confession (Rom 10:9-10), and baptism (Acts 18:8). The New Testament often uses synecdoche when describing a person's response to the gospel – mentioning just one element (such as faith, repentance, or baptism) to represent the whole response that leads to justification.[39] Because of this, it is fair to assume that when saving faith is pictured, it is never faith alone. In fact, Barrett himself claims, “faith and repentance cannot be divorced from one another.”[40]
It is also noteworthy that Paul’s strong language in Romans 3-4 against works-based salvation occurs specifically within the context of Jewish reliance on works of the Law. The Jews believed that their act of circumcision secured God’s favor, even though their lives remained disobedient. This is why Paul had to emphasize that justification comes by faith apart from works. His aim was not to construct a doctrine of faith alone, but to establish a doctrine of faith apart from works. This understanding places the burden of proof on evangelicals who claim that baptism is a work. Certainly, if someone treats baptism as a means of earning God’s good graces, it can become a work. However, this was not Paul’s understanding of baptism. For the same Paul who argued against works-based salvation also described baptism as the occasion in which a person puts their faith “in the working of God” (Col 2:12). The early Church did not view baptism as a means of earning salvation, but as the occasion of faith in God’s work to justify.
All of this demonstrates three key thoughts. First is that faith alone is never actually faith alone. Second, Paul’s words in Romans were not issued to build a faith alone doctrine, but a faith apart from works doctrine. Third, the early Church taught emphatically the saving nature of baptism but never treated it as a way to earn justification. It is commendable and biblical to protect against a works-based salvation, but not at the expense of speaking biblically about saving faith. The saving faith, which brings forth justification, that is pictured in the New Testament, is one that is never alone.
Baptism, Works, and Circumcision
Thomas J. Nettles makes the statement, “Just as circumcision had nothing to do with the justification of Abraham (Rom 4:10-11), so baptism has nothing to do with the justification of the believing sinner.”[41] This claim represents many modern evangelical convictions about baptism. It is grounded in Romans 4:10-11, where Paul demonstrates that Abraham was counted as righteous prior to his circumcision. The parallel drawn by Nettles is that baptism is a type of circumcision, and just like Abraham was not counted righteous because of circumcision, so too Christians are not counted righteous because of baptism. Nettles also draws upon Colossians 2:11-12 to reinforce the parallel between baptism and circumcision. His conclusion is that baptism is not the occasion of justification, just as circumcision was not the occasion of justification for Abraham.
This is a common objection to baptism. However, there are two significant weaknesses in this argument that deserve attention. First, the text of Romans 4:10-11 is not really concerned with baptism. Paul’s focus is on Jewish reliance on circumcision for justification, not on Christian baptism. As already mentioned in the previous rebuttal, Paul was concerned with Jews who boasted of their circumcision earning grace from God. So, he poses their forefather Abraham as an example of that flawed thinking. Abraham was justified through faith prior to circumcision. Paul’s point is that no Jew has a right to boast of their circumcision before God. There’s no indication that Paul, the New Testament writers, or the early Church fathers were concerned about Christians treating baptism as a meritorious work in the way circumcision was abused. In fact, the opposite seems to be true – baptism was viewed as the expression of faith and repentance, not a boastful work. Now certainly, a wrong view of baptism could be an example of reliance on works to save, but that was not the early Church’s view of baptism.
The second flaw of this argument is in the text of Colossians 2:11-12. In this text, Paul is not equating baptism with physical circumcision but is instead using the imagery of circumcision metaphorically to describe what happens in baptism – a spiritual cutting away of sin. The text reveals that the circumcision Paul is referring to is one made without hands. He goes on to describe it as “the removal of the body of the flesh” (Col 2:11). This is the same language Paul uses in Romans 6:6 to describe the man of sin who is crucified and buried in baptism. In Colossians, however, the imagery is not the burial of that man of sin, but the circumcision of that man’s sin. The metaphor Paul is using is that just as circumcision cuts away skin, so baptism cuts away sin. Thus, he could conclude, “and when you were dead in your trespasses and the uncircumcision of your flesh, God made you alive together with him, having forgiven us all our trespasses” (Col 2:13). The point Paul is making is contrary to Nettles’ claim. Paul is saying that baptism is like a circumcision only in that it removes something. Namely, sins are removed through faith in the working of God (Col 2:11-13).
Nettles’ conclusion that “baptism has nothing to do with justification” is difficult to sustain in light of the texts he references, which appear to point in a different direction when closely examined. Furthermore, his claim is difficult to reconcile with the broader New Testament witness and the early Church’s consistent association of baptism with justification.
The Timing of Justification
The timing of justification is a conversation about when God declares someone just. Barrett cites the timing of justification as “the moment of faith in Christ” without any elaboration of when or how that takes place.[42] This raises the important question of what that “moment” involves, and how the New Testament describes it in practical terms. Schreiner sheds some light on this view when he sets forth the claim that those who are baptized are already justified, having undergone a spiritual change – a conversion of heart.[43] The view set forth by these men is that justification occurs prior to baptism in the “moment of faith in Christ” and the “conversion…in the heart.” While these two men do not take their claims to this end in these descriptions, many modern evangelicals will cite a prayer of acceptance as the “moment of faith” which Barrett speaks of. Nonetheless, their timeline presents justification happening at the moment of faith in Christ and prior to baptism.
Barrett explains how one is justified by saying, “it is by trusting in Christ, depending upon and receiving his atoning, substitutionary work on the cross, that a sinner is justified.”[44] It is true and biblical that trust in Jesus and dependence upon His work on the cross brings forth justification (Rom 3:27-28). However, Barrett uses the phrase “receiving his atoning, substitutionary work on the cross” to describe the moment of justification. This seems to be what Barrett calls the “moment of faith in Christ.”[45] This begs the question: What is that moment? How does one receive Christ’s atoning work on the cross? One might search the scriptures for a prayer of acceptance and repentance for justification. Interestingly, such a prayer is not found in the New Testament. Instead, what emerges from the pages of Scripture is a consistent pattern of baptism as the occasion in which faith is actualized and thus the sinner is justified.For Paul said that one is united with the death of Christ in baptism (Rom 6:5) and thus receives his atonement. Furthermore, Paul cites baptism as the place where one is brought from death to life through forgiveness of sins (Col 2:12-13). Peter proclaimed “forgiveness of sins” as the direct result of a person’s response in baptism. What these demonstrate is that the “moment of faith in Christ” Barrett sought to define occurs within baptism, where faith and repentance are actualized and expressed.
Summary
As has already been stated, the major thesis of this paper is that the early Church proclaimed baptism as the decisive act in which a person turned to God in repentance and confessed faith in Christ, resulting in the forgiveness of sins. The views above seek to undermine that conviction. It must be emphatically stated that the view of baptism presented in this paper does not advocate a works-based salvation. Referring to baptism as “the decisive act” does not imply that it earns salvation as a meritorious work. Rather, baptism is the God-appointed expression of faith and repentance – an instrument of surrender, not a work of achievement, in which one receives grace. This paper advocates for baptism being the occasion in which a person places their trust in God to cut away sin and bring them from death to life (Col 2:11-13); the place where God clothes the sinner in Christ’s array and brings them into the family of God (Gal 3:26-27); the place where one is brought into union with Jesus (Rom 6:3-7); the place where one is washed, sanctified, and justified in the name of the Lord Jesus (1 Cor 6:9-11). This view of baptism does not interfere with salvation by grace through faith (Eph 2:8-9) but provides the occasion for that salvation by grace through faith. The conclusions of this paper align with the summary offered by Richard Pratt Jr., who summarized this view, saying, “divine grace is the ground for salvation; human faith is the agency of salvation; baptism is the occasion of salvation.”[46] As Pratt summarizes here, baptism is not salvific on its own but is the God-ordained moment where faith is visibly expressed and grace is received.
Conclusion
“As a man’s body was cleansed by the water, so his soul was bathed in the grace of Christ.”[47]This quote from William Barclay, drives home the points made within this paper. This paper has provided a detailed summary of baptism as it was proclaimed in the early Church. It has been concluded thatthe early Church proclaimed baptism as the decisive act through which an individual turned to God in repentance and confessed faith in Jesus, resulting in forgiveness of sins and incorporation into the Church. This truth is attested to throughout the New Testament and is supported almost unanimously by the Church fathers, thus demonstrating the early Church’s convictions surrounding baptism. This paper has defended this perspective on baptism, not to cause friction, but to uphold and honor the biblical teachings set forth by Jesus and His apostles. The goal of this paper has been to hold fast to the biblical practice set forth by Jesus Christ and His holy apostles as seen in the pages of the New Testament.
Footnotes
[1] William Barclay, The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1976), 69.
[2] J.A. Harding, Introduction to Handbook on Baptism, by J.W. Shepherd (Nashville, TN: McQuiddy Printing Company, 1912), 14.
[3] Unless otherwise specified, all Bible references are from the New American Standard Bible, (NASB) (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995).
[4] J.I. Packer, Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008), 72.
[5] The Shepherd of Hermas, Commandments, 4.3.
[6] Tertullian, The Shows, 4.
[7] Hippolytus, On the Apostolic Tradition, 21.9.
[8] G.R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1962), 267-268.
[9] Even if one does not regard Mark 16:9-20 as original to Mark, these verses appear no later than the late second century in Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 3.10.5. Even if not part of Mark’s original text, the passage is notable for its testimony to the early Christian conviction of the importance of baptism as a condition of salvation and its connection with an expression of faith. Thoughts derived from Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church, 141.
[10] Similar to the Mark 16:9-20 text, this text is considered by many as not original to Luke. However, it is attested to as early as the second century when Irenaeus quotes this text (Against Heresies, 3.12.8.). While this does not validate its authenticity, it does attest to the prevailing thought of the Early Church that baptism was directly tied to a profession of faith.
[11] Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003), 219.
[12] For a full presentation of this argument from Romans 10:9-10, see: Rustin Umstattd, “The Roman Road Ends in Water: Baptism, Confessing with the Mouth and Calling on the Name of the Lord,” Midwestern Journal of Theology, Volume 23, Number 1, (Spring 2024), 1-19.
[13] Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin, 61.
[14] Tertullian, On Baptism, 13.
[15] Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition, 21.12-18.
[16] Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church, 855.
[17] G.R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament, 102.
[18] The textual variant of Mark 16:9-20 has already been addressed on page 4 of this paper.
[19] “washing” can refer to baptism or could be recalling the spiritual cleansing language from the Old Testament. For a thorough view on both sides, see: Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church, 162-164 and Thomas Schreiner, Baptism in the Epistles, 85-86.
[20] The Shepherd of Hermas, Similitudes, 9.16.
[21] Barnabas, Epistle of Barnabas, 11.
[22] Tertullian, On Baptism, 12.
[23] Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church, 138.
[24] Thomas R. Schreiner, “Baptism in the Epistles: An Initiation Rite for Believers,” Believer’s Baptism: Sign of the New Covenant in Christ, edited by Thomas R. Schreiner and Shawn D. Wright (B&H Publishing Group, 2006), 71.
[25] The Teachings of the Twelve Apostles, 9.5
[26] Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin, 66.1
[27] Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church, 203.
[28] Hermas, Visions, 3.3.
[29] Origen, Homilies on Genesis, 10.5.
[30] Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, 219.
[31] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2018), 193.
[32] Thomas J. Nettles, “Baptism as a Symbol of Christ’s Saving Work,” Understanding Four Views On Baptism (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 40.
[33] Thomas Schreiner, “Baptism in the Epistles,” Believers Baptism: Sign of the New Covenant in Christ, 78.
[34] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2018), 193.
[35] Ibid., 200.
[36] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation, 228.
[37] Ibid., 229.
[38] Ibid., 234.
[39] Robert H. Stein, “Baptism in Luke-Acts,” Believers Baptism: Sign of the New Covenant in Christ, 64.
[40] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation, 182.
[41] Thomas J. Nettles, “Baptism as a Symbol of Christ’s Saving Work,” Understanding Four Views On Baptism, 40.
[42] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation, 200.
[43] Thomas Schreiner, “Baptism in the Epistles,” Believers Baptism: Sign of the New Covenant in Christ, 78.
[44] Matthew Barrett, 40 Questions About Salvation, 229.
[45] Ibid., 200.
[46] Richard Pratt Jr., “Believers Baptism as the Biblical Occasion of Salvation: A Reformed Response,” Understanding Four Views on Baptism, 150.
[47] William Barclay, The Acts of the Apostles, 69.
