Dualism at Qumran
A striking feature of the scrolls found at Qumran is the dualistic language that permeates the literature. The sons of light are set against the sons of darkness (1QS 1:10), the spirit of truth is set against the spirit of falsehood (1QS 3:19), Israel is set against the Kittim (1QM 1:3-4), the Teacher of Righteousness is set against the Wicked Priest (1QpHab 11:4-5), and on and on the scrolls go. This kind of dualism saturated the Qumran sect’s writings, convictions, practice, and theology.[1] The scope of this brief paper will look at the origins of this dualism, identify the main types of dualism used in the scrolls, and the function of the dualism in the scrolls.
Origins of Dualism in the Scrolls
The origins of the dualism in the Dead Sea Scrolls are quite contested. Some have proposed an outside influence from other religions while others have proposed an internal development within Jewish thought.[2] Both of these propositions will be briefly examined here.
Zoroastrian Influence
Some scholars believe that there is a strong Persian influence in the dualism of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[3] They believe that Zoroaster is the originator of dualistic thinking. He frames the world in a conflict between two “twin spirits,” one good and the other evil. He uses language like “truth and lie” and “light and darkness” to distinguish the two spirits and their influence. In Zoroaster’s thinking the two twin spirits are co-equal creators in constant battle for domination of the world.[4]
This dualistic framework of Zoroastrian religion bears many similarities, both in concept and terminology, to the dualistic framework of the Qumran community. The language of light against darkness, truth against lies, and good spirits against evil spirits all seems to be working from a similar dualism in each religious movement. Most notably is the similarity between Zoroaster’s two twins and the Dead Sea Scrolls’ “Treatise on the Two Spirits” (1QS 3:13-4:26). These conceptual and linguistic similarities have led some to believe there was an external influence of Persian thinking on the Qumran community.
However, many scholars have rejected this notion on the basis of the strict monotheism of the Qumran community. More recent scholars find it doubtful that this sect would develop the ideology of two co-eternal creators battling for dominion of the world and instead opt for an internal development that centers on monotheism.[5]
Internal Development
On the other side of this debate, scholars have suggested that dualism may have developed from within Judaism instead of from external sources. They point to a development of Biblical texts like Isaiah 45:7 where Yahweh is depicted as the one who formed “light and darkness” and the one who causes “calamity and well-being.”[6] This monotheistic framework is much closer to the way the Treatise of the Two Spirits depicts dualism, where God is the originator of the two Spirits and allots humanity to one or the other (1QS 3:15-18).
Jörg Frey points to Daniel’s concept of a new kingdom dawning mirroring the eschatological dualism of “this world” and “the world to come” seen in the apocalyptic texts.[7] Philip R. Davies points to Daniel 10:20-21 to demonstrate how the development of Israel at war with the nations, aided by angelic forces, was a step towards the development of cosmic dualism seen in the War Scroll.[8] Others have seen an origin in the wisdom tradition of the Hebrew Bible where the wise are set against the foolish and the righteous against the wicked.[9] These all share the conviction that a Persian influence is not the most likely explanation of dualistic origins. Rather, they argue that an internal development from already existing Hebrew Scriptures and traditions is the most likely origin.
Middle Ground
Some vie for middle ground understanding that influence is a hard concept to be certain of. Frey lands on an internal development “triggered” by Persian influence.[10] Davies believes that “familiarity with Zoroastrianism may have prompted a limited exercise in literary revision” within the Qumran corpus.[11]
Despite the frequent discussions surrounding origins of dualism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, no consensus has been met. Scholars are divided across these two views, with some even taking a stance somewhere in the middle.
Types of Dualism in the Scrolls
Dualism at Qumran is not a monolithic concept. Scholars have noted up to ten dualistic dimensions in antiquity: metaphysical (God/Satan), cosmic (light/darkness), spatial (heaven/earth), eschatological (this age/the age to come), ethical (good/evil), soteriological (saved/lost), theological (God/creation), physical (matter/spirit), anthropological (body/soul), and psychological (internal conflicting influences).[12] Not all of these types are accounted for within the Scrolls nor can the texts be isolated into one type of dualism. More often than not, several dualistic dimensions are building upon one another in a given text (e.g. the Treatise on The Two Spirits).[13] The most prevalent types of dualism in the scrolls recognized by scholars are cosmic, ethical, psychological, and eschatological.[14]
Dualism Proper?
While scholarly consensus affirms the above statements about a diversity of dualism, some scholars have posed a “dualism proper” that undergirds much of Qumran ideology.
Frey believes that cosmic dualism is the thread running through all other dualistic thinking. He says,
Qumran sectarian dualism is, thus, a sheer cosmic dualism shaped by a division of humanity into those inside and those outside, characterized by metaphors of light and darkness and by the link with God (or an angelic leader) and Belial. The present is considered the dominion of Belial (1QS 2:19), but there is hope for his destruction and his lot, by the victory of God of his agents.[15]
Although Frey envisions a “dualism proper” here, other scholars see a blended thread across the scrolls rather than a singular dualism capturing all dualistic texts.[16]
There are other significant types of dualism used in the scrolls. Eschatological dualism is very prominent as they anticipated a new age to come (1QM). Phycological dualism is prevalent as they wrestled with internal conflicting forces (1QHa). Ethical dualism is littered across the scrolls where they distinguish lifestyles between the yahad and outsiders (1QS).
Function of Dualism in the Scrolls
A topic not talked about much in scholarship is the function of dualism in the scrolls. However, it is worth considering here because the function of dualism shows us why the community built upon this dualistic worldview. There are two main functions that are connected to each other.
The Ethical Function
Marcus Tso argues that ethical dualism is one of the prevailing dispositions of the community. He argues that the ethics of the yahad are directly related to the dualistic thinking of the yahad. Tso concludes is belief saying that the ethics among the sectarians are expressed in deterministic and dualistic terms.[17]
This dualistic approach to teaching gave a “good versus bad” way of seeing behavior and thus grounded their ethics in a dualistic mindset. This became a strong motivator and teacher for the community way of life.
The Identity Function
Géza G. Xeravits locates the reason for dualistic thinking in a social setting. He believes that the self-identification of the yahad against other currents of contemporary Judaism provides a rationale and function for their dualism. He believes that dualism is more about securing the sectarian identity of the community than anything else. The evidence for this is seen in the fact that the majority of dualistic teaching in the scrolls lies in the sectarian texts.[18]
The Relationship Between Ethics and Identity
Tso speaks to the connection between identity and ethics saying, “Ethical descriptors were sometimes used to build self-identity, leading to the exhortation to live up to those descriptors.”[19]
What each of these functions demonstrates is that the ethical standards expressed in dualistic terms aided in creating an “us versus them” way of thinking. Likewise, the identity of the people being expressed explicitly in an “us versus them” way aided in building the community ethic. All of this grounded the yahad in their ethical identity standing against the norms of Judaism.
Conclusion
Dualism is one of the most pervasive themes within the Dead Sea Scrolls. The limited scope of this paper does not allow for more to be said on this subject. What has been acknowledged here are the basic elements of dualism discussed in scholarship.
As was already mentioned, it is important to note that the dualism of these scrolls is not a monolithic convention. Rather, the scrolls display a wide use of types that all overlap in various texts. Each of them, though, serves the community to ground them in their ethics and identity as a sectarian society.
Footnotes
[1] I acknowledge that this claim has been contested by some scholars (Xeravits, Dualism at Qumran, 2010). They believe that many of the dualistic teachings are found in pre-sectarian texts and only adopted by the community in sparse ways and never as universal convictions. I will not be engaging in the text critical conversations of more recent scholarship but will differ with some of their conclusions in this paper based on the arguments of scholars like Jörg Frey.
[2] Jörg Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, edited by John J. Collins (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014), 273.
[3] For a lengthy discussion on potential Persian influence in the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Albert De Jong, “Iranian Connections in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by Timothy H. Lim and John J. Collins (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010), 479-500.
[4] Yamauchi, E.M. “Religions of the Biblical World: Persia,” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Volume 4 (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979-88), 127.
[5] Paul Heger, “Another Look at Dualism in Qumran Writings,” Dualism in Qumran, edited by Géza G. Xeravits (New York, NY: T&T Clark International, 2010), 46-47.
[6] Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” 273.
[7] Ibid., 275.
[8] Philip R. Davies, “Dualism in the Qumran War Texts,” Dualism in Qumran, edited by Géza G. Xeravits (New York, NY: T&T Clark International, 2010), 17-18.
[9] Matthew Goff, “Looking for Sapiential Dualism at Qumran,” Dualism in Qumran, edited by Géza G. Xeravits (New York, NY: T&T Clark International, 2010), 29-38.
[10] Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” 273.
[11] Davies, “Dualism in the Qumran War Texts”, 19.
[12] Marcus Tso, “Ethics and Dualism,” T&T Clark Companion to the Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by George J. Brooke and Charlotte Hempel (New York, NY: T&T Clark, 2019), 560-62.
[13] Heger, “Another Look at Dualism in Qumran Writings,” 39-101.
[14] Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” 279-283.
[15] Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” 286-88.
[16] Tso, “Ethics and Dualism,” 560.
[17] Ibid., 563.
[18] Géza G. Xeravits, “Introduction: Dualism in Qumran,” Dualism in Qumran, edited by Géza G. Xeravits (New York, NY: T&T Clark International, 2010), 6-7.
[19] Tso, “Ethics and Dualism,” 564.
